RADAR is the short form derived from RAdio Detection And Ranging.

Where, D is the distance between radar station and object in nautical miles. T is the total time from transmission of the signal and reception of the signal in micro-sec. In most of the radar applications, Nautical mile is used in place of statute miles for the measurement purposes. A Nautical mile is equal to 6076 ft.

Zigbee Network Overview:

 

As mentioned in the network diagram, zigbee network is comprised of coordinator(C), router(R) and end devices (E). Zigbee supports mesh-routing. For detailed information on routing protocol employed in zigbee, one may refer Ad-hoc on-demand Distance Vector Routing protocol (AODV protocol), RFC 3561

LTE Advanced Architecture

5G Cell Phone Architecture | 5G Cell Phone Block Diagram

This article on 5G Cell Phone architecture covers 5G Cell Phone Block diagram with internal modules of 5G Cellular phone architecture.

Introduction: 
5G cell phones have been designed to comply either 3GPP NR or Verizon TF specifications. Some phones support both of these specifications. It works on radio frequencies in various bands as per country wise allocations. Typically it uses less than 1 GHz, below 6 GHz and above 6 GHz (i.e. mmwave) frequency bands.

It delivers fast uplink/downlink throughput due to massive MIMO and lower latency between 5G network (i.e. 5GNB) and itself. The 5G cell phone supports 10 times throughput compare to 4G phones. They are backward compatible to 4G standards viz. LTE and LTE-advanced. Moreover latest 5G phones will support bluetooth, wifi and NFC based short distance wireless technologies. GPS is also incorporated to support various GPS based applications including location tracking, google maps etc.

 

The figure-1 depicts block diagram of the GSM cell phone. As shown it consists of RF part including RF Transceiver chip, baseband part comprising of DSP and CPU for controlling the data/control messages. ADC/DAC chips are used for interfacing both RF and baseband parts. The other basic cell phone components include touchscreen display, battery, RAM, ROM, RF antenna, MIC, Speaker, camere, diplexer, micro-USB, SIM slots and more.

5G Cell Phone Architecture

The figure-2 depicts basic block diagram of 5G cell phone architecture. As shown the architecture include baseband part, digital RF interface such as DigRF, ADC/DAC and RF Transceiver. The basic components are same in the 5G phone except antenna array is used instead of one antenna to support massive MIMO and beamforming.

Quadplexer is used instead of diplexer to support multiple bands. Quadplexer or Quadruplexer is used to multiplex and demultiplex four radio frequencies to/from single coaxial cable as shown. This helps in reducing cost and weight as well as uses very smaller area of the phone. This shown 5G cell phone architecture supports mmwave frequency bands.

In order to support massive MIMO/beamforming multiple PAs, LNAs, phase shifters, RF filters and SPDT switches are incorporated in the 5G cell phone design. The 5G phone is backward compatible to 2G/3G/4G, WLAN, Bluetooth, GNSS etc. The 5G phone shown is based on heterodyne architecture and advantages of Heterodye receiver.

Radio Frequency Front End (RFFE) control signals are used to carry TSSI and RSSI informations. TSSIstands for transmitter signal strength indicator and RSSI stands for receiver signal strength indicator. As a result, the temperature control of the beamforming module and its calibration are performed.

PMUs (Power Management Units) and LDOs (low drop-out regulators) are used in beamforming part of the 5G cell phone. They transform DC voltage of coaxial cable to different power supplies for use in various dies for cell phone operation.

Note: The figure has been taken from the paper on "5G Cellular User Equipment: From Theory to Practical Hardware Design" which is published on July 18,2017 at IEEE Access by YIMING HUO1, XIAODAI DONG1 and WEI XU2.

5G Technology Features, bands, architecture, deployment, 5G Mobile phones

This 5G wireless technology section covers 5G features, 5G bands, 5G architecture, 5G deployment modes, 5G mobile phones manufacturers, 5G cell phone architecture etc. in the form of tutorials, terminologies and articles.

Introduction: 
5G wireless technology is similar to other cellular wireless technologies such as 2G, 3G and 4G. It supports same as well as advanced features compare to backward wireless technologies. Refer 4G vs 5G >> for difference between 5G and other wireless technologies. It supports various frequency bands across the world including above 6 GHz (mmwave bands), below 6 GHz and below 1 GHz. Refer 5G NR Bands >> or 5G Frequency Bands >>. The 5G throughputs of about 20Gbps in the downlink and 10Gbps in uplink are benchmarked by most of the 5G network operators. Throughput speeds of about 5Gbps to 10 Gbps have been achieved during 5G field trials by them till now.

5G NR (New Radio) architecture

5G NR overall architecture is shown in the following figure-2. This is as defined in the 3GPP TS 38.300 specification. Refer 5G network architecture >>

5G Deployment Scenarios or modes

There are two modes underwhich 5G Cell phone operates viz. standalone and non-standalone. In non-standalone mode, 5G cell phone relies on backward technology such as LTE for control channel signaling and performs data handshake in 5G wireless mode. In standalone mode, 5G cell phone performs both control and data handshake itself without the need of any backward standards or technologies. Refer 5G Deployment Modes>> for more information.

5G NR Network Interfaces

Refer 5G NR network interfaces which include Xn interface, NG interface, E1 interface, F1 interface and F2 interface. Refer 5G NR interfaces >>.

5G NR Frame Structure

 

This page describes 5G NR Frame structure. It describes 5G frame as per NR (New Radio) 3GPP standard. The 5G NR frame structure depicts subframes,slot and symbol configurations. Refer 5G NR Frame Structure >>.

5G Channel Types

5G channel types cover logical channels and transport channels used in uplink and downlink with mapping between them. The 5G logical channels include xBCCH, xCCCH, xDCCH, xDTCH etc. The 5G transport channels include xBCH, xDL-SCH, xRACH, xUL-SCH etc. Refer 5G Channel Types >>.

5G Protocol Stack

The 5G layer-1 is PHYSICAL Layer. The 5G layer-2 include MAC, RLC and PDCP.The 5G layer-3 is RRC layer as shown in 5G protocol stack. Refer 5G protocol layer functions >>.

5G NR Physical layer processing for PDSCH and PUSCH

This article describes 5G NR physical layer. The physical layer processing for 5G NR PDSCH channel and 5G NR PUSCH channel have been covered stepwise. This 5G physical layer description is as per 3GPP physical layer specifications. Refer 5G NR PHY >>.

5G NR MAC Layer Overview

This page describes overview of 5G NR MAC layer. It covers 5G NR MAC functions, 5G NR MAC architecture, 5G NR MAC channel mapping, 5G NR MAC procedures and format of 5G NR MAC header and subheaders. Refer 5G NR MAC Layer >>.

5G NR RLC Layer Overview

This page describes overview of 5G NR RLC layer including functions. It covers 5G NR RLC modes (TM mode,UM mode, AM mode),data structures (TMD, UMD, AMD),RLC PDUs (TMD PDU, UMD PDU, AMD PDU), data transfers (TM, UM and AM) and RRC parameters which defines RLC layer. Refer 5G NR RLC Layer >>.

5G NR PDCP Layer Overview

This page describes overview of 5G NR PDCP layer including functions. It covers PDCP architecture (structure, entities), PDCP procedures for data transfer during transmit/receive operation, Data PDU and Control PDU formats of PDCP layer etc. Refer 5G NR PDCP Layer >>.

5G NR Initial Access Procedure

Refer 5G NR Initial Access Procedure >>.

5G NR Beam Management Operations

Refer 5G NR Beam Management Operations >>.

5G NR Uplink Power Control

In wireless systems it is often required to either increase or decrease the transmit power of UE or mobile device. This is known as uplink power control. 
Refer 5G NR Power Control Procedure >>.

5G NR Uplink Timing Control

In wireless cellular systems it is required to adjust timing of the uplink frame in order to have alignment with downlink frame in time scale. As we know uplink frame is transmitted by UE towards gNB where as downlink frame is transmitted by gNB towards UE. gNB is the 5G NR base station. The timing control procedure is initiated by MAC layer and conveyed to the PHY layer for time adjustment. 
Refer 5G NR Timing Control Procedure >>.

5G Cell phone architecture | 5G Mobile Phones Manufacturers

Refer 5G cell phone architecture >> article which describes block diagram of 5G cell phone including its basic components and their respective features.

5G NR (New Radio) architecture

5G Deployment Scenarios or modes

5G NR Network Interfaces

5G NR Frame Structure

5G Channel Types

5G Protocol Stack

The term WiMAX stands for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access.

16d  fixed
16e mobile wimax
WiMAX has greater coverage diatance than WiFi or WLAN. WiFi cover range of about 30 m, while WiMAX cover radius of about 50 km. WiMAX should be able to support data rate of about 70Mbps theoretically with higher modulation scheme such as QAM.

MIMO vs SISO-Difference between SISO and MIMO techniques

This page compares MIMO vs SISO and mention difference between SISO and MIMO techniques. These are techniques based on number of antennas used at the transmitter and the receiver. SISO has been in use since the invention of wireless system.MIMO concept has been recently added to the wireless system. There are different MIMO algorithms which has been developed for two main reasons to increase coverage and to increase the data rates.

SISO means Single Input Single Output while MIMO means Multiple Input Multiple Output.

In SISO system only one antenna is used at transmitter and one antenna is used at Receiver while in MIMO case multiple antennas are used. Figure depicts 2x2 MIMO case.

MIMO system achieves better Bit Error rate compare to SISO counterpart at the same SNR. This is achieved using technique called STBC (Space Time Block Coding). With STBC coverage can be enhanced.

MIMO system delivers higher data rate due to transmission of multiple data symbols simultaneously using multiple antennas, this technique is called as Spatial Multiplexing (SM). With SM data rate can be enhanced.

MIMO with SM and beamforming can be employed to obtain enhancement to both the coverage and data rate requirement in a wireless system.

SISO is used in radio, satellite, GSM and CDMA systems while MIMO is used in next generation wireless technologies such as mobile wimax -16e, WLAN-11n.11ac,11ad, 3GPP LTE etc.

 IoT wireless technologies. The IoT wireless standards covered are wifi, Z-wave, bluetooth, zigbee, THREAD, RFID, NFC, GPRS, EDGE, UMTS, LTE, ANT+, Cognitive radio, weightless N/W etc. Companies are developing products as per wireless standards outlined here. The idea is to develop IoT product which addresses following key challenges.

• Trade off between power, data rate and coverage range
• Interoperability between wireless standards
• security aspects
• Prevention of interference and failure modes

Wireless	Standard	N/W type	USA Frequency	Max. range	Max. data rate and power	Secu- rity
WiFi	IEEE 802.11a, 11b, 11g, 11n, 11ac, 11ad	WLAN	2.4 , 3.6, 5, 60 GHz	100m,	6-780 Mbps 6.75 Gbps at 60 GHz 1 Watt	WEP, WPA, WPA2
Z-wave	Z-wave	Mesh	908.42 MHz	30m	100Kbps, 1 mW	Triple DES
Bluetooth	Bluetooth, Formerly IEEE 802.15.1	WPAN	2400 to 2483.5 MHz	100m	1 to 3 Mbps, 1 Watt	56/ 128 bit
Bluetooth Smart(BLE)	IoT Inter- connect	WPAN	2400 to 2483.5 MHz	100m	1Mbps, 10-500 mW	128 bit AES
Zigbee	IEEE 802.15.4	Mesh	2400- 2483.5 MHz	10m	250 Kbps, 1mW	128 bit
THREAD	IEEE 802.15.4, 6LoWPAN	Mesh	2400 to 2483.5 MHz	11m	251 Kbps , 2 mWatt	128 bit AES
RFID	Many standards	Point to Point	13.56 MHz	1 m	423 Kbps, about 1mW	Possible
NFC	ISO/IEC 13157	Point to Point	13.56 MHz	0.1m	424 Kbps,1 to 2 mW	Possible
GPRS	3GPP	GERAN	GSM 850 , 1900 MHz	25 Km/ 10 Km	171 Kbps 2W/1W	GEA2/ GEA3 /GEA4
EDGE	3GPP	GERAN	GSM 850/ 1900	26 Km/ 10 Km	384 Kbps, 3W/1W	A5/4, A5/3
HSDPA/ HSUPA	3GPP	UTRAN	850/ 1700/ 1900 MHz	27 Km/ 10 Km	0.73-56 Mbps, 4W/1W	USIM
LTE	3GPP	GERAN/ UTRAN	700-2600 MHz	28 Km/ 10Km	0.1-1Gbps , 5W/1W	SNOW 3G Stream Cipher
ANT+	ANT+ Alliance	WSN	2.4 GHz	100 m	1Mbps, 1mW	AES-128
Cognitive Radio	IEEE 802.22 WG	WRAN	54-862 MHz	100 Km	24 Mbps, 1 W	AES- GCM
Weightless -N/W	Weightless SIG	LPWAN	700/ 900 MHz	5 Km	0.001-10 Mbps, 40mW/4W	128bit

As there are wireless devices designed and developed based on different wireless standards as outlined above, the biggest challenge is interoperability between these devices in the IoT network. The other challenge is interference among these devices due to frequency of operation either in the same band or nearby bands. The radiated power is also the critical factor to be considered for interference related issues

LORA architecture and frames

The figure-1 depicts LoRa network architecture. Customer information database is housed in servers. Communication between end devices and gateways are carried at different channels and different data rates. LoRa supports adaptive data rate from 0.3 Kbps to 50 Kbps.

LoRa Frame Structure

The transmission from end device to gateway is referred as "uplink" and transmission from gateway to end device is referred as "downlink". There are different classes supported in LoRaWAN network viz Class A, Class B and Class C.

As shown in figure LoRa frame consists of uplink part and downlink part. In Class-A, LoRa frame has one uplink slot followed by two downlink slots. The frame is as per TDD topology. Refer LoRaWAN classes for other LoRa classes.

LoRa Protocol Stack

The figure-2 depicts LoRa protocol stack consisting of Application layer, MAC layer, PHY layer and RF layer.
• Data from application layer and MAC commands required to establish connection between End device and gateway are carried as MAC payload.
• MAC layer constructs the MAC frame using MAC payload.
• PHY layer uses MAC frame as PHY payload and constructs the PHY frame after inserting Preamble, PHY header, PHY header CRC and entire frame CRC.
• RF layer modulates the PHY frame on required ISM RF carrier as per regulatory requirement and transmits on to the air. 

Note: Information provided on this page is derived from LoRaWAN Specification V1.0 released on Jan.2015 by LoRa™ Alliance. LoRa alliance is responsible for changes to the specifications at any time without notice. RF Wireless World is not responsible for any issues with regard to the same. Refer latest specifications published by LoRa Alliance ( https://www.lora-alliance.org ) for any changes required to be done for the products under development as per LoRa standard.

Unlicensed frequencies in world

India's IoT market size is expected to increase to $9 billion by 2020 from $1.3 billion in 2016, according to consultancy firm Deloitte.

What is TTN ?
The Thing Network---The Things Network is about enabling low power Devices to use long range Gateways to connect to an open-source, decentralized Network to exchange data with Applications.

UHF HAM RANGE   70cm
430MHZ-440MHZ

·         Wireless tech. for smart cities is low power wide area networks (LPWANs).

·         LPWAN tech. such as Sigfox, LoRa(long Range), LTE-M (long term evolution for machines) and NB-IoT (narrow band internet of things )

·         LPWAN devices is expected to grow at a compound annual growth rate of 109 % during 2018-23

·         By 2023, it is expected to have more than 1.1 billion active LPWAN connections.

Spectrum for LTE deployments

·         LTE, LTE-Advanced and LTE Advanced Pro services can be deployed in dozens of spectrum bands starting at 540 MHz and rising to nearly 6 GHz

·         The most used band in commercial LTE networks are 1800 MHz(Band 3) which is a mainstream choice for LTE in most regions; 800MHz( Band 20 and regional variations) for extending coverage and improving in building services; 2.6 GHz as a major capacity band; and 700 MHZ for coverage improvement.

·         Band 3 (1800 MHz)LTE network deployment in this band now common throughout Europe, Asia Pacific, Middle East and Africa, regions of South America.

·         Band 20(800 Mhz) is firmly established as a mainstream band for LTE

·         Band 7 (2.6 GHz) is third most used band with 164 deployed/launched networks in 78 countries and is more extensively used in the Americas than Band 3 and Band 20.

VoLTE global status

·         In total, GSA has identified 248 operators investing in VoLTE in 112 countries, including 180 operators that have launched VoLTE services in 87 countries an increase from 134 in 65 countries in January 2018.

·         Another 51 operators either plan to deploy or are deploying VoLTE services.

·         Additionally, 17 operators that are involved in test /trials have been identified.

·         By Jan 2019 the GSA had identified 21 networks that had launched services, the most recently identified being Play in Poland and Orange in Romania.

 LTE Advanced global status

·         By jan 2019 there were 274 commercially launched LTE Advanced networks in 122 countries.

·         Overall 317 operators are investing in LTE- Advanced .

·         Many operators with LTE Advanced networks are looking to extend their capabilities by adding 3GPP release 13 or Release 14 LTE Advanced Pro features.

 IoT global Status

·         By mid jan 2019 there were 133 operators investing in NB-IoT in 64 countries.

·         The no. of deployed/launched NB-IoT networks has doubled in the past 12 months.

·         About 78 operators have deployed launched NB-Iot networks in 45 countries up from 39 operators in 28 countries a year ago.

·         Further there are 57 operators investing in LTE-M networks in 34 countries.

·         Altogether, 47 countries now have at least either a launched NB-IoT network or a launched LTE-M network and 19 of these countries have both network types.

5G Global Status

The GSA has identified 201 operators in 83 countries that have launched, demonstrated are testing or trailing or have been licensed to conduct field trials of 5G enabling and candidate technologies.